50 Years ago

WMO Bulletin Vol. VIII, No. 3
July 1959

The picture on the cover

The Assembly Hall of the Palais des Nations in Geneva has been the scene of many important international sessions but rarely have representatives from so many different countries gathered there as for the Third World Meteorological Congress, the opening meeting of which is featured in the picture on the cover. The fact that Congress was once again held at the European headquarters of the United Nations provides yet another demonstration of the close ties which exist between WMO and its sister specialized agencies under the overall aegis of the United Nations. These relationships were among the many subjects discussed during Congress and an important resolution was adopted laying down the policy for co-operation with other international organizations, based on the recognition that one of the main aims of WMO is "to ensure the most effective application of the science of meteorology to human activities".

The next four years, during which the programme decided by Congress will be implemented, will no doubt provide still further evidence of WMO and the other specialized agencies can contribute to making the world happier and more united.

Third World Meteorological Congress

Review of th main decisions

An account of the main questions to be discussed during the Third World Meteorological Congress was given in the last issue of the Bulletin (pp. 52-58). The purpose of the present article is to report on the decisions taken by Congress. It would be difficult to cover all the items of the long agenda of Congress and in this report it has been necessary to make a selection of those items which it is thought are most likely to be of interest to readers of the Bulletin. In particular many important constitutional, administrative and financial questions have been omitted.

Opening meeting

The session was opened in the Assembly Hall of the Palais des Nations, Geneva, on the morning of 1 April 1959 by the President of WMO, Mr. Andre Viaut. On this occasion the delegates of nearly 90 Members and the representatives of two non-Member countries and of several other international organizations were joined by a number of distinguished guests. An address of welcome on behalf of the United Nations was given by Mr. G. Palthey, Deputy Director of the European Office of the United Nations. He spoke of the long record held by WMO and its predecessor of international co-operation in the scientific and technical field, of the progress made by WMO since the holding of its Second Congress in 1955, and of the important part played by WMO in the organization of the International Geophysical Year. The membership of the Organization, now larger than that of any other specialized agency, was a proof of its vitality and of the increasing importance of meteorology in the world of today.

On behalf of the Swiss Federal Council, Mr. P. Etter, Federal Councillor, warmly welcomed the delegates attending the Congress. He congratulated meteorologists on their fellowship of thought, research and action, maintained in spite of political and ideological divergences of opinion, and spoke also of the immediate practical applications of the science of meteorology, though he regretted that improvements in weather forecasting seemed to have taken away some of the pleasure of the personal observation of natural events !

The rich inheritance of WMO from the International Meteorological Organization and its present almost universal membership, were also referred to by Dr. M. G. Candau, Director-General of the World Health Organization. He drew a parallel with the somewhat similar development of WHO from earlier health organizations and the fundamental aim of both organizations for the application of scientific knowledge to the greater benefit of mankind. He spoke of the studies being made of the climatic factors in the causation of differences in the incidence and prevalence of certain diseases in different parts of the world.

Common problems in the field of aeronautical meteorology were instanced by Mr. G. J. W. Oddie, representative of the International Civil Aviation Organization, who stressed the desire of the aviation world for the urgent improvement of observational networks, telecommunications facilities and forecasting techniques, especially in relation to the introduction of regular jet aircraft services.

Mr. A. S. Kudriavtsev, on behalf of the Director-General of the International Labour Office, spoke of the links between climatic conditions and man's activities and of the need for close collaboration between his organization and WMO.

In his presidential address, Mr. A. Viaut referred to the accession of the Iooth Member of WMO, which had taken place just before the opening of Third Congress and exactly eight years after the adoption by First Congress of the resolution transferring to WMO the functions and obligations of the IMO. He recalled the perseverance of the pioneers in investigation of the atmosphere, which had led to the universal adoption of the principle of coherent observational and transmission networks and to the world-wide co-operation which had made possible such a vast project as the meteorological programme of the IGY.

Man was said to thrive on obstacles. He felt that we need not fear that continual solution of our problems would make the way too smooth; even with such aids as electronic computers to solve some of our difficulties in the future there would still be obstacles to overcome. There were, in any case, many immediate problems awaiting solution. Increasing calls were being made on WMO for its co-operation in special projects and many of the proposals put forward for the third financial period represented the normal development of our activities, which must not be allowed to mark time. The Organization had always been able to operate with a modest budget and a relatively small secretariat; but its increased responsibilities and activities were taken into account when preparing the draft budget for the third financial period.

The President then summarized the main tasks which lay ahead and reminded delegates that the technical and financial implications of all these should be carefully examined, bearing in mind the benefits offered by meteorology to the general life of the community.

Organization of the session

After the opening meeting a number of committees was established, on the basis of whose study of the various agenda items the final decisions of Congress were taken in plenary session. These preparatory studies were made by the Committee on Technical Questions, under Mr. L. J. Dwyer (Australia), the Committee on Administrative and Financial Questions, under Mr. M. F. Taha (United Arab Republic) and the Committee on General and Legal Questions, under Sir Graham Sutton (United Kingdom). Reports were also made to plenary by the Credentials Committee (chairman: Dr. M. A. F. Barnett (New Zealand) ) and the Nominations Committee (chairman: Mr. S. Basu (India) ). Allocation of items to these committees was agreed on by the Co-ordination Committee, under the President.

The provisional agenda was approved with some modifications, and the reports of the President of the Organization and of the presidents of constituent bodies were presented to plenary before being referred to the appropriate committee.

The following pages contain a report on the main decisions taken in plenary.

Constitution and organization

WMO Convention

Congress examined various proposals for amending the WMO Convention. It was decided to amend Article 13 (c) to the effect that the number of elected members of the Executive Committee should be increased from six to nine. There was lengthy discussion about Article 10 (b), which relates to the decisions of Congress which require a two-thirds majority, but none of the amendments proposed obtained the required majority.

With regard to submission of proposals for amending the Convention, it was decided that although the Executive Committee had no prescriptive right to initiate such proposals it would be in order for this Committee to keep the Convention under continuing review and to submit to Congress the text of any proposed amendment considered to be necessary.

Joint support schemes

The existing policy regarding joint support schemes was reaffirmed and the Executive Committee was requested to develop procedures for the satisfactory implementation of this policy. Basic principles were laid down for the guidance of the Committee in handling any requests for joint support received during the third financial period. The question will be reviewed again at Fourth Congress in the light of a report to be prepared by the Executive Committee.

Relations with other international organizations

Congress reviewed the existing relations with the United Nations and other international organizations and decided that further collaboration would be assisted by a statement of principles to guide the Organization's activities in this field. These principles were laid down in a resolution in which it is emphasized that the primary goal is effective and efficient co-operation with the United Nations and its related agencies and with all other international organizations whose interests or projects have meteorological aspects.

Technical assistance

Congress decided not to adopt a regular technical assistance programme but to continue on an increased scale the Operational and Technical Development Fund created by Second Congress. An amount of 60,000 US dollars was included in the budget for this purpose.

Information about some of the other decisions of Congress relating to technical assistance activities will be found on p. 159.

Technical questions

General policy

Congress reviewed the broad aspects of the future technical programme on the basis of a document submitted by the Secretary-General and adopted a resolution which provides general guidance with regard to the different fields of the WMO technical activities and contains a list of projects which should receive particular attention during the third financial period.

It was also decided to direct the Executive Committee to report to Fourth Congress on the ways and means whereby more effective action might be taken by the Organization with regard to ensuring adequacy in the world network of meteorological stations. The Secretary-General was further requested to present a report to Fourth Congress on the necessity for establishing WMO regional offices and on the cost of so doing.

Congress considered that WMO should intensify its activities in promoting meteorological research. In particular it was decided that the Organization should do everything possible to initiate, sponsor and encourage the establishment and operation of one or more research institutes for tropical meteorology.

Detailed consideration was given to the structure and terms of reference of the technical commissions. A large majority of Members agreed that the Commission fo Bibliography and Publications need not be re-established by Third Congress, and the Executive Committee was directed to take the necessary steps to continue this field of activity by other means, such as by the establishment of panels of experts.

It was considered that valuable experience had already been gained by supplementing the technical commissions' machinery with such panels of experts but that further studies were desirable of the most appropriate system for dealing with problems within certain fields of meteorology such as instruments and methods of observation.

WMO's responsibility in hydrology

There was general agreement among delegates about the importance of hydrology and of the role to be played within the United Nations family in the field of water resource development. Many countries had always been faced with an acute shortage of water, while in others the increased requirements for water for industrial purposes, agriculture and human consumption were leading rapidly to great difficulties in meeting all the demands. Many countries suffered from a bad annual distribution of precipitation, resulting in serious floods during part of the year and water shortage at other times.

In view of the above factors, there was much which could usefully be done within the general framework of the United Nations and the specialized agencies to assist countries in solving their water problems. The chief question to be decided, so far as WMO was concerned, was how the Organization could best contribute to this vital work. Some delegates felt that Congress should adopt a progressive and flexible policy while others considered that the limits of the WMO activities in this field should be strictly defined. It was finally decided to establish a Technical Commission for Hydrological Meteorology with the following terms of reference:

(a) The study and formulation of meteorological requirements for hydrology, especially with regard to the rapid exchange and arrangement of data;

(b) The design and promotion of networks for the measurement and study of those parameters in the hydrological cycle which involve meteorological considerations;

(c) The development, improvement, promotion and international standardization of methods, procedures and techniques for:

(i) The application of meteorology to hydrology, for example in such problems as river-stage forecasting, flood forecasting and the study of seiches; and

(ii) The provision of meteorological services to international hydrology.

It was further agreed to create a small section for hydrological meteorology in the WMO Secretariat, the main functions of which would be to assist the work of the new commission and of the working groups on hydrology of the regional associations and also to continue the close collaboration of WMO in the water resource development programme of the United Nations and of the other specialized agencies.

Arid zone and humid tropics

It was agreed that efforts should be made towards increased collaboration with UNESCO in the field of arid zone research and suggestions were made as to how this might be achieved.

Disappointment was expressed that WMO had not so far been able to make any substantial contribution to humid tropics research. It was decided that WMO's activities in these fields should be increased both at the national level, by the Members concerned, and at the international level in collaboration with UNESCO.

International Geophysical Year

Delegates considered that the Organization could feel justifiably proud of the important contribution which Members had made to the IGY meteorological programme. It was felt that the activities of the Meteorological Data Centre had demonstrated how a vast programme of data collection and publication could be handled in an efficient and economical manner.

With regard to the proposal to continue the Meteorological Data Centre in order to enable it to handle the meteorological data of the International Geophysical Cooperation 1959, it was agreed that the Centre should collect and publish the aerological, ozone and radiation-balance data resulting from this period, provided that this could be done on a self-financing basis.

It was decided that the Secretariat should assist in co-ordinating investigations based on the IGY meteorological data and that the Executive Committee should be requested to make adequate arrangements for co-ordinating the project for preparing the IGY synoptic charts and aerological cross-sections. It was also decided that the Secretariat should act as a centre for providing information about research projects based on IGY meteorological data and should maintain a catalogue showing how meteorological data may be obtained for research purposes.

Consideration was also given to a proposal that the work of collecting and publishing aerological, ozone and radiation data should be continued by the WMO Secretariat as a permanent service, but the majority view was that the needs of research workers could be met more economically if all countries published their own data. The Executive Committee was requested to study the general problem of ensuring that meteorological data are readily available in a convenient form for research workers.

International ozone work

The proposals for transferring to WMO responsibility for certain aspects of international ozone work which had hitherto been assumed by the International Ozone Commission were accepted (see WMO Bulletin, Vol. VIII, No. I, p. 19) with the exception that ozone data would not be collected on a permanent basis by the WMO Secretariat. A sum of 5,000 US dollars was included in the budget for the purpose of carrying out inter-regional comparisons of ozone instruments.

Atomic energy

Dr. P. R. Jolles, Deputy Director-General of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was present at the plenary meeting at which decisions were taken regarding the role WMO should play in the application of atomic energy for peaceful purposes. Dr. Jolles spoke of the Working Agreement concluded between WMO and the IAEA, which would come into force as soon as Members of WMO had given their assent, and recalled that co-operation between the two organizations had not been delayed until the formal conclusion of this agreement was reached, but had begun many months ago. He referred to some of the ways in which meteorological factors were taken into account in atomic energy problems and mentioned some of the applications of atomic physics (radioisotopes) as a new research tool for meteorology.

Congress agreed that WMO should study all possible meteorological aspects of the application of radioactive isotopes and should issue a report, after consultation with the IAEA and other appropriate authorities, on the meteorological aspects of the peaceful uses of atomic energy.

Technical Regulations

A large number of proposed amendments to the WMO Technical Regulations were studied by a sub-committee. This led to the adoption of a revised draft of Chapters I to II and also to a new concept of annexes and appendices to these chapters, to be implemented on 1 January 1961. It was decided to maintain Chapter 12 — Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation — in Volume II of WMO Publication No. 49. The new edition will be published in loose-leaf form. Congress considered that no major changes in the Technical Regulations should be made without special advice from the appropriate technical commission, and a number of proposals were therefore referred to the relevant commissions for study at their next sessions.

It was recognized that it was frequently not possible for Members to give notification of changes in procedures, involving deviations from the Technical Regulations, sufficiently far in advance to enable them to be published two months before the date of their introduction. It was therefore decided to make provision for some flexibility.

It was further noted that if notification of a deviation from a standard was not received, it had to be assumed that the Member was complying with that standard. This assumption resulted in some uncertainty as to the correct situation, which was particularly important in the case of Chapter 12 of the Technical Regulations, since knowledge of the implementation or non-implementation of a standard might have an effect on the safety of air navigation. Congress accordingly decided to request Members to give specific notification of implementation of standards in respect of the revised regulations as well as in respect of all future standards.

Publications

Detailed consideration was given to the programme of publications for the third financial period and it was agreed that as a matter of general policy a high priority should be given to this programme. A basic list of publications to be issued during the third financial period was established, which includes, in addition to the reports of meetings and other official documents, a continuation of the now well-established Technical Notes series, manuals of instruction in the fields of aeronautical and hydrological meteorology, and an illustrated international ice nomenclature.

Congress also approved the sponsoring by WMO of the publication of a restricted number of international meteorological tables on the understanding that if this trial proved successful, expansion of this publication would be considered by Fourth Congress. It was assumed that all the tables would be computed by meteorological services on a voluntary basis.

Particular attention was paid to the possibility of publishing a World Meteorological Bibliography, but it was considered most unlikely that the bibliography could be made self-supporting and it was therefore not included in the programme of publications.

Climatic atlases

Congress noted with satisfaction that specifications for national and regional climatic atlases for land areas had already been issued and that steps had been taken for the establishment of similar specifications for sea areas and the free atmosphere. Regional associations were encouraged to proceed immediately with the preparation of regional climatic atlases taking account of suggestions laid down in a Congress resolution as to how this work could be carried out.

The need for careful co-ordination of the work of the various constituent bodies concerned with the preparation of climatic atlases was recognized and it was therefore decided to invite the president of the Commission for Climatology to set up a Working Group on Climatic Atlases for this purpose on which the other technical commissions concerned could be represented.

Artificial satellites

Great interest was shown in the report prepared for the eleventh session of the Executive Committee by the WMO rapporteur on meteorological satellites. It was decided that WMO should encourage the development and use of artificial satellites as a means of providing valuable meteorological data. This policy was incorporated in a resolution of Congress which also gives broad directives to the Executive Committee for its implementation.

Administrative and financial questions

Future expenditure

Congress authorized a maximum expenditure of 2,694,484 US dollars during the third financial period (1960-1963), but gave authority for this sum to be exceeded in certain specific eventualities. Certain amendments were also adopted to the Financial Regulations.

Public information

Congress noted that the publicity given to the work of WMO, especially during the IGY, had helped to draw attention to the value and necessity of meteorological activities in the economic life of the world. It was considered that efforts should be concentrated on the dissemination of information regarding the applications of meteorology to other activities (such as agriculture, aviation and shipping) and the unparalleled international collaboration through the daily world-wide exchange of meteorological information.

Discussions were held regarding the form to be taken by the celebrations of the tenth anniversary of the coming into force of the WMO Convention (1960) and it was decided that these celebrations should take place jointly with the ceremonies on the occasion of the opening of the new permanent building of WMO in the same year.

Officers of the Organization

Mr. Viaut (France) was re-elected President of WMO for a second term of office; Mr. L. de Azcarraga (Spain) was elected first Vice-President and Mr. M. F. Taha (United Arab Republic), second Vice-President.

The elective places on the Executive Committee, which were increased from six to nine by Congress, were filled by the following:

Dr. M. A. F. Barnett (New Zealand)

Mr. F. L. Fernandez (Argentina)

Col. F. Giansanti (Italy)

Dr. J. Lambor (Poland)

Sir Graham Sutton
(United Kingdom)

Dr. A. Thomson
(Canada)

Dr. Kiyoo Wadati (Japan)

Mr. A. A. Wahab (Sudan)

Mr. A. A. Zolotoukhine
(U.S.S.R.)

By unanimous decision of Congress Mr. D. A. Davies was reappointed Secretary-General.

Conclusion

Of the complete agenda of over 60 items it has only been possible to mention here the decisions taken on about one-third of the total. A provisional abridged report was distributed to all the delegates at the close of the session; the final version of this will be published in due course.

At the closing meeting on 28 April, Mr. Viaut recalled that the work done during the previous weeks would guide the Organization during the coming four years. He expressed appreciation of the continuous hard work, and the accompanying goodwill, of all the delegates, which had enabled them to reach the end of the programme with the minimum of difficulty. Thanks were also due to the European Office of the United Nations for having placed its excellent facilities and experienced staff at the disposal of Congress, to the Swiss Federal and Cantonal authorities for their welcome and hospitality, to the observers who had also taken part in the discussions, and to the interpreters, whose work had smoothed the way to understanding and co-operation between meteorologists of many different languages. The President also paid tribute to the backroom work of the Secretary-General and all members of the Secretariat whose unceasing efforts had ensured that the necessary documents were always available in good time; and to the careful preparations in the working committees which had facilitated his task as President.

Mr. Viaut recalled that he had said in his opening speech that man needed obstacles to surmount. He felt that we still had no lack of obstacles since, though much had been accomplished in the foregoing weeks, the effort would have been in vain if it was not followed up by each delegate in his respective service.

Eleventh session of the executive committee

The Executive Committee of WMO held a short session in the Palais des Nations, Geneva, from 29 April to 5 May 1959 immediately after the end of Third Congress. This was an historic gathering in that it was the first session of the enlarged committee (see p. 135) and in all probability the last session to be held in the Palais — it is planned that future sessions will take place in the new WMO headquarters.

The main purpose of the session was to consider several urgent matters which had been referred to the Committee by Congress and to deal with such important routine questions as the budget for the next year and the establishment of working groups and panels of experts. To reduce the duration of the session to the absolute minimum, it was decided to discuss all the items of the agenda directly in plenary meetings on the basis of proposals made by various rapporteurs.

Reports on sessions of constituent bodies

Two constituent bodies had held their second sessions in the interval between the tenth and eleventh sessions of the Committee, namely Regional Association IV (North and Central America) and the Commission for Agricultural Meteorology. Reports on both these sessions will be found in previous issues of the Bulletin (Vol. VIII, No. 2, p. 77 and Vol. VIII, No. I, p. 9 respectively).

Arising from a recommendation of RA IV, the Committee adopted a resolution stressing the importance of obtaining the maximum amount of inflight meteorological data, particularly with respect to the wind in the vicinity of jet streams, from high-speed and high-altitude aircraft.

The recommendations of CAgM led to the adoption of five separate resolutions, dealing respectively with meteorological assistance in locust control, instruction in agricultural meteorology, information required with published soil temperature and soil moisture data, bioclimatology and biometeoro-logy of man, and the organization of agricultural meteorological services.

Establishment of working groups and panels

The Committee decided to set up two working groups and four panels of experts. The new Working Group on the International Geophysical Year is charged with the preparation of detailed proposals for co-ordinating research projects based on IGY data. It is envisaged that this group will hold a session together with representatives of Members participating in the preparation of IGY world synoptic charts and aerological cross-sections.

The former Panel on Water Resource Development was re-established as a working group to deal temporarily with questions falling within the terms of reference of the Commission for Hydrological Meteorology, until such time as the establishment of this new commission has been completed. The chairman of the group, Mr. Max A. Kohler (United States of America), will conduct the affairs of the commission until its president has been elected by correspondence.

Two former panels of experts were re-established with revised terms of reference. They are responsible for studying and advising on the meteorological aspects of the peaceful uses of atomic energy and on techniques for high-level analysis and forecasting. Information about the earlier work of these panels will be found in Volume VIII, No. I, p. 41 of the Bulletin and on page 138 of the present issue.

A Panel on Bibliography and Publications was set up to continue the work of the former Commission on Bibliography and Publications. The membership of the panel includes Dr. A. Vandenplas (Belgium), who was president of CBP at the time of its dissolution.

The terms of reference of the fourth of the panels are to keep a continuing review of the possible uses of artificial satellites for meteorological purposes and to make suggestions as to how WMO can best assist in these activities.

Other technical questions

Among the other technical questions considered by the Committee, mention should be made of the International Geophysical Co-operation 1959 (IGC) and the growing interest in meteorology in the Antarctic. In accordance with the decisions of Third Congress it was decided to urge Members to send their 1959 aerological, ozone and radiation-balance data to the Meteorological Data Centre. The Secretary-General was directed to publish these data provided that this can be done on a self-supporting basis.

The Committee adopted a resolution on meteorology in the Antarctic in the light of recommendations addressed to WMO by the Special Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) — see Bulletin, Vol. VIII, No. 2, p. 75. This resolution relates to the continued collaboration between WMO and SCAR, and to the work of the International Antarctic Analysis Centre in Australia.

General and financial questions

Applications for the granting of consultative status by WMO had been received from the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage and the Munitalp Foundation. It was decided to defer action on these requests until the twelfth session of the Committee; in the meantime WMO will continue to collaborate with these two bodies as in the past.

The budget approved for 1960 amounted to US $ 655,105. This includes provision for the recruitment of a small number of additional personnel in the Secretariat in accordance with decisions taken by Congress.

High-level analysis and forecasting techniques for longhaul turbine-powered aircraft

The Panel of Experts on High-Level Analysis and Forecasting Techniques met in Brussels from 18 to 22 March 1959, at the kind invitation of Professor E. Lahaye, director of the Belgian Royal Meteorological Institute. The meeting was attended by Messrs. H. K. Meyer (Federal Republic of Germany), P. Duverge (France), Y. Levy-Tokatly (Israel), R. J. Ogden (United Kingdom), G. Tschirhart (French Equatorial Africa), N. L. Ve-ranneman (WMO Secretariat). Mr. Meyer also represented CSM. Representatives were also present from the International Air Transport Association and the International Federation of Airline Pilots' Associations.

The meeting of this panel constituted a further step in the series of measures adopted by WMO in this field (see Bulletin, Vol. VII, No. 3, pp. 104-107). Basically, the panel's task consisted of studying the provisional Technical Note on high-level forecasting techniques, in order to determine the questions necessitating further investigations.

The panel's recommendations can be divided into three categories:

— Recommendations calling for action on the part of Members;

— Recommendations calling for actionon the part of WMO constituent bodies;

— Recommendations of a more general nature.

Recommendations calling for action on the part of Members

These relate to three questions:

(i) The need for carrying out regular checks on the accuracy of upper-air temperature and wind forecasts;

(ii) The need to reduce the effect of systematic errors affecting radiosonde observations. In this connexion, the panel called attention to the differences which may result from a lack of standardization in calibration methods as well as computation techniques, especially as regards upper winds;

(iii) The need to concentrate efforts on the analysis and forecasting of tropopause data and on the making of accuracy tests.

Recommendations calling for action on the part of WMO constituent bodies

These concern the systematic differences between upper-air observations from networks in the west and east of Europe; revision of the current definition of tropopause; the possibility of reducing the time interval between successive observing points in radiosonde ascents; standardization of the determination of altitudes in RAWIN observations; the dissemination, in a single international form, of collective reports of tropopause and jet stream data; the urgent preparation of a manual on the utilization of aircraft meteorological reports.

Recommendations of a more general nature

The panel considers that the analysis and forecasting of jet streams constitutes the main difficulty encountered by aeronautical forecasting services at the present stage of progress in that field. In view of the importance and urgency of the problem, the panel recommended that study of the question be entrusted either to an expert recruited by the Organization especially for that purpose, for a period of several months, or to certain Members willing to direct efforts in their respective research departments to this question in particular.

As a conclusion to its work, the panel recommended the urgent publication of the final version of the Technical Note on Techniques for High-Level Analysis and Forecasting, in English and French. In order to ensure greater homogeneity, a table of contents was established, which Members contributing to the note are invited to follow.

Action by the Executive Committee

The eleventh session of the Executive Committee examined the panel's report and approved all its recommendations, except those calling for action by Members; the Committee considered that it would be useful to obtain prior comments on the latter recommendations, and the panel's report will be distributed to all Members for this purpose.

As regards the study of questions connected with jet streams, the Executive Committee preferred to adopt the panel's second proposal, that is to say to ask the Members concerned to concentrate their research on the question and to send the Secretariat periodical progress reports.

Finally, in view of the importance of the question, the need to co-ordinate action on the specific problems at present under study within WMO and the need to follow very closely the evolution of the entire question, the Executive Committee decided to re-establish the panel of experts.

N. L. V.

Artificial control of clouds and hydrometeors

In the January 1956 issue of the Bulletin (Vol. V, No. I, p. 28), a short summary was published of WMO Technical Note No. 13: Artificial control of clouds and hydrometeors, prepared by a working group of the Commission for Aerology. At its second session (Paris, June-July 1957), the commission considered this Technical Note to be an important and valuable document. However, in view of the rapid current development of studies and experiments in this field it was thought likely that the contents of this Technical Note might have to be revised in the light of new results obtained. A working group on clouds and hydro-meteors was therefore established to keep this question under constant review and to report to the third session of the commission or, at an earlier date, to the president of the commission, if necessary.

The working group, which is composed of H. R. Byers (U.S.A.), H. Dessens (France, chairman), I. Gajvoronsky (U.S.S.R.) and B. C. V. Oddie (United Kingdom), recently submitted a provisional report to the president of CAe. In view of the interest of this report, it is reproduced in full below.

Provisional report of working group

Since the publication of Technical Note No. 13 on the artificial control of clouds and hydrometeors, no sensational discovery has been made in this field of meteorology. Nevertheless, large numbers of investigations have been carried out in various countries; the most important of these relate to methods of research in cloud physics, the artificial production of clouds, the dissipation of fogs and clouds, the prevention of hail and the evaluation of the results of large-scale operations to increase rainfall.

It therefore seems to the members of the group that Technical Note No. 13 should be completed by a supplement containing details of the various achievements mentioned above. We shall mention here some of the results of research during the past years.

Modification of clouds by seeding

Dissipation of clouds and fogs

Experiments with a view to the local dissipation of cloud layers by means of seeding from aircraft have been resumed in the United States (I) and in the U.S.S.R. (2), in order to determine the effects obtained under specific conditions (temperature, wind, thickness of layer) with determined quantities of seeding materials.

Although solid carbon dioxide produces ice crystals once the temperature is below zero, it does not appear possible to use it for creating a gap in a cloud layer, unless the temperature drops in the upper part of the layer to below -4°C. Silver iodide, whose threshold of effectiveness lies around -5°C, would only produce a similar effect at temperatures below about -10°C. The thinner the cloud layer, the easier it is to make the ground visible from an aircraft flying above the layer; even in layers more than 800 m in depth, holes of several km in diameter are sometimes obtained. Difficulties increase with wind speed; at speeds of 7 to 10 metres per second, it is only possible to disperse layers not exceeding 300 to 400 m in thickness. Overseeding is hardly to be feared, as a thin layer can be dissipated just as well by using 10 kg as by using 0.5 kg of solid carbon dioxide per km. Sowing 10 grams of silver iodide per kilometre produces an effect comparable to that produced by sowing 2 kg of solid carbon dioxide.

Experiments in surface fog dissipation, carried out in France, have shown the value of disseminating liquid propane when the temperature lies between -1° and -5°C (3); they have also demonstrated the possibility of precipitating fogs over areas of several square kilometres once their temperature falls bellow -4°C, even by means of silver iodide smoke produced 10 to 20 hours earlier (4).

There have been no fresh results of interest in connexion with the artificial dispersion of clouds and fogs at temperatures above zero.

Rainfall stimulation

A distinction has to be made between localized experiments designed to evaluate the efficiency of various seeding agents and large-scale operational attempts to increase rainfall in a given area.

The localized experiments carried out in the United States (5), using strict methods of evaluation (clouds for treatment and control, clouds chosen at random and the detection of rainfall by radar) have shown that rainfall can' be initiated by spraying cumulus with water from aircraft, the frequency of radar echoes observed in the treated clouds being higher than in the control clouds. This information is very important from a scientific point of view, but it is not sufficient to prove the practical value of seeding techniques.

Another interesting experiment has been carried out in Australia (6) for the precise purpose of evaluating these economic possibilities. In order to eliminate the uncertainty regarding the trajectories of nuclei between the generators on the ground and the clouds, nuclei are released either in the region of the -6°C isotherm or, if that is not possible, in the region of the cloud base; a special generator was installed in an aircraft for this purpose. The method of control consists of defining a series of disturbances, choosing at random those that are to be treated, and evaluating for each — treated or untreated — the ratio of rainfall amounts on the target area and on a control area taken as being uninfluenced. For the first six months, the evaluation led to the conclusion that there was a relative increase of the order of 24 per cent due to seeding. If subsequent developments in the experiment confirm this result, the Australian trial will strengthen the hopes of practical application of seeding techniques.

Quite recently (7) results have been announced of two summer seeding campaigns, using silver iodide distributed from aircraft over the Santa Catalina Mountains (Arizona). These experiments were carried out on pairs of days favourable for seeding, the day treated and the control day being selected in each pair at random. The mean quantity of rain for the days of seeding was 30 per cent greater than the mean for days without seeding; nevertheless, at the end of the two campaigns, it was considered that there was a 14 per cent chance that the excess was not the result of the experiments. On the other hand, the number of radar echoes extending above 9000 m was almost doubled on days of seeding and there is a 95 per cent probability that this was not due to chance. Moreover, the total number of lightning strokes observed during 16 days of seeding was about 10 times greater than the number observed during 16 days without seeding and there is a 98.5 probability that this was not a chance circumstance.

Since 1955, operations said to be large-scale have been followed by serious attempts to evaluate the results. The final report of the Advisory Committee (8), published at the end of 1957, is a document of fundamental importance, although the statistical evaluations which it contains have given rise to various criticisms. As in the previous cases, these operations were carried out with silver iodide smoke generators on the ground. Most of them were entrusted to commercial firms and the performances of the generators (number of nuclei produced) were not always stipulated. The statistical processes used indicate that the seeding of winter disturbance clouds in the mountainous or semi-mountainous regions of the West Coast of the United States produces a mean increase in precipitation of the order of 10 to 15 per cent, but in flat regions the same statistical processes did not show any increase in rainfall which could be attributed to seeding.

This latter indication of zero or undetectable efficiency confirms the results of the two experiments also carried out in the United States. The SCUD Project (East Coast area: seeding on the ground, using silver iodide; and from aircraft, using solid carbon dioxide) showed that even if seeding had a large-scale effect on rainfall or the pressure field, this effect was too small to be distinguished from natural weather variations (9). The ACN Project (west of the State of Washington) led to the same conclusion after migratory cloud systems associated with cyclonic activity in the middle latitudes had been seeded from aircraft, using solid carbon dioxide. The observations made during the ACN Project tend to indicate that cases in which seeding can be effective are rare, as thick cloud layers contain natural ice crystals (10). It should be noted that the six different methods of statistical analyses applied to the ACN Project produced contradictory results, but none of them eliminated the possibility of a slight increase in rainfall; it might be deduced from five of them that a similar reduction in rainfall occurred.

It should be mentioned that a project at present being conducted, designed to offer greater certainty in statistical evaluations (Santa Barbara Project), is the occasion of unusual collaboration between a commercial firm, a university and various bodies or foundations. Nuclei are disseminated by NAWC (North American Weather Consultants), using a random system of selection evolved by the University of California; the statistical processing carried out by that university does not exclude physical studies using radar. The results of this exceptional undertaking are not yet known.

Mention must also be made of the localized (n) or large-scale (12) seeding experiments, using sodium chloride crystals. No decisive result can be deduced as yet, but it is desirable that experimenters inclined to consider the process as useless should nevertheless publish their results in the same way as those who feel that they can discern positive results.

Prevention of hail

Several operations have been carried out to prevent or reduce the damage caused by hail, especially in the United States, Switzerland, Spain, Canada and France. These operations also were based on the scattering of silver iodide particles released by generators on the ground. No conclusion regarding the success of the trials can be deduced from the data collected, but experiments are at present being made in order to evaluate them (13).

The possibility of preventing hail by seeding clouds with silver iodide has been discussed by certain authors (14), (15), who consider that it is practically impossible to introduce concentrations of nuclei sufficiently large to prevent the supercooling which is responsible for producing the hail. Bearing in mind these remarks and the fact that hail is produced by cumulonimbus typified by both a considerable inflow of supercooled water and great vertical development, certain research workers in U.S.S.R. (2) and France (16) proposed that experiments should be pursued with a view to preventing, not the supercooling of the cloud, but its exaggerated vertical growth. The observed fact that cumulus precipitate very early (and thus fail to grow) in areas with large concentrations of ice-producing nuclei, tends to justify the attempts to prevent hail formation by seeding with silver iodide.

Clouds and artificial rain obtained by induced convection

The most striking effects of seeding operations are observed when a release of heat accompanies the seeding (liberation of latent heat of freezing). It therefore occurred to some research workers that the introduction of heat alone might be sufficient to trigger a precipitation process. The attempts to stimulate the development of tropical cumulus formations by lighting intense fires under their bases are linked with this idea.

Even more remarkable are the experiments, proposed over a century ago by the American Espy, consisting of forming cumulus in clear air, using the action of an area of artificial convection. Attempts were first made with a bare area superheated by the sun (17) and contrasting with forest surroundings; this was followed by experiments involving the burning of scrub. By carefully choosing the moment of setting it alight, experimenters succeeded in forming large detached cumulus clouds in clear air, which produced rain reaching the ground (18). Further investigations are planned in tropical and temperate regions (burning of fuel). This method appears worthy of consideration, even in desert areas, whenever there is a layer of moist air close to the ground too thin to permit the natural formation of rain.

Research connected with weather control

We have mentioned above some new processes and their results related to attempts to modify clouds artificially. We have not referred to the important investigations carried out in the laboratory and in the field before or during such experiments, both in the countries already mentioned and in others, such as Japan and Italy, where activity of research workers is also very great.

This fundamental research concerns seeding agents and processes, atmospheric diffusion and the natural mechanisms of cloud evolution. The outstanding conclusion appears to be that our knowledge of the processes of rain formation is incomplete and that large-scale international collaboration is essential if we are to understand these processes and to make a new start, on a more solid foundation, towards victory in the fight to control the weather.

References

1. aufm Kampe, H. J., Kelly, J. J. and Weickmann, H. K. (1957). Meteor. Monogr., Vol. 2, No. 11. 86-111

2. Nikandrov, V.J. (1957). IUGG Conference, Toronto

3. Serpolay, R. (1957). Bull. Obs. Puy-de-Dome, Ser. 2, No. 4, 115-120

4. Dessens, H., Serpolay, R. and Sou-lage, G. (1958). C.R. Acad. Sci., Paris, 246, 292-295

5. Braham, R. R., Jr., Battan, L. J. and Byers, H. R. (1957). Meteor. Monogr., Vol. 2, No. II, 47-85

6. Adderley, E. E. and Twomey, S. (1958). Tellus, 10, 275-280

7. Kassander, A. R. and Battan, L. J. (29 Jan. 1959). Paper presented at 174th meeting Am. Met. Soc.

8. Final report of the U.S. Advisory Committee on Weather Control. 2 vols. Washington (1957)

9. Spar, J. (1957). Meteor. Monogr. Vol. 2, No. 11, 5-23

10. Hall, F. (1957). Meteor. Monogr. Vol. 2, No. 11, 24-46

11. Bull. Obs. Puy-de-Dome (1957). 27—29

12. Fournier d'Albe, E. M. (1957). In forme tecnico Inst, de Ciencias Apli-cadas, Mexico

13. Sanger, R. (1958). Grossversuch III, No. 10, Berne

14. Weickmann, H. K. (1955). Bull. Obs. Puy-de-D6me, 33-36

15. Ludlam, F. H. (1958). Nubila, 1, 12-96

16. Dessens, H. (1958). Bull. Obs. Puy-de-Dome, 89-92

17. Dessens, H. (1956). Bull. Obs. Puy-de-Dome, Ser. 2, No. 4, 113-125

18. Dessens, H. and J. (1956). C.R.Acad. Sci., Paris, 243, 814-817

Survey of national punch-card programmes, 1958

The October 1956 issue of the WMO Bulletin contained an article by Dr. W. C. Jacobs on Basic weather data — A survey of current control practices (Vol. V, No. 4, p. 126). One of the major items discussed in this article was the situation, as shown by an inquiry made during 1954, regarding punch-card programmes. As mentioned in the article, the Working Group on the Exchange of Historical Weather Data, established by the Commission of Climatology, recommended through its chairman, Dr. Jacobs, that WMO should periodically make a survey in order to ascertain the status of such programmes within its Member countries.

The working group was re-established by the Commission of Climatology at its second session (Washington, 1957) although with a slightly different name, the word historical being replaced by past. Its terms of reference included the preparation of a report along the lines mentioned above.

In order to obtain material on which the report might be based, the Secretariat of WMO distributed, in January 1958, a questionnaire to all Member countries. It is gratifying to be able to report that replies were received from as many as 75 countries, including, it may be assumed, all those Member countries which have any substantial punch-card programme.

At the request of Dr. Jacobs, who was re-elected as chairman of the working group, the replies were analysed by Mr. W. L. Molo of the U.S. Air Weather Service. The report which resulted from this analysis is being distributed by the Secretariat to the Members of WMO.

The present article is an abstract of this report, the purpose of which may be expressed by quoting from its introduction:

[The report] could inform individual countries with regard to the punch-card programmes of other countries and thereby stimulate an exchange of information, of technical experience, and even of the punch-cards themselves; and in particular, it could inform countries planning or inaugurating punch-card programmes of the status of programmes and some of the practices used in other countries.

As the replies to the questionnaire were received during the period January to June 1958, they give a fairly good picture of the availability of meteorological data from the International Geophysical Year within the national punch-card programmes, and thus may be assumed to satisfy, partially at least, the wish expressed at the fifth meeting of the Special Committee for the IGY (CSAGI) in Moscow, in July 1958, according to which all countries should be informed regarding the punch-cards used in other countries for IGY meteorological investigations.

The Member countries which report that they have a meteorological punch-card programme are the following (countries where aerological data are punched are in italics):

Region I: Belgian Congo, British East Africa, French Equatorial Africa, French West Africa, Madagascar, Union of South Africa, U.A.R. (Egyptian Region).

Region II: Hong Kong, India, Japan, Pakistan.

Region III: Argentina, Brazil.

Region IV: Canada, Netherlands Antilles, U.S.A.

Region V: Australia, Indonesia, Netherlands New Guinea, New Zealand.

Region VI: Austria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Federal Republic of Germany, France, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, U.S.S.R., United Kingdom, Yugoslavia,

Data from Tunisia and French Cameroons are to a certain extent punched by the Meteorological Service of France, and data from Togoland by French West Africa. The following meteorological services have indicated that they have plans for a punch-card programme: British Caribbean Territories, Denmark, El Salvador, French Cameroons, Ghana, Iran, Korea, Mauritius, Poland, Romania, Spain, Thailand and Venezuela.

Types of cards

Nearly all countries having a punch-card programme state that they are using 80-column Hollerith cards. The only exceptions at present are Czechoslovakia and Indonesia, where 45-column cards are used.

This does not mean, of course, that nearly all punch-cards are interchangeable. The selection and arrangement of the data entered on the cards, the codes and units used etc., are widely different. It may in some instances be possible to convert, by mechanical means, certain data, or even the entire information given, from one variety of 80-column card to another, but it seems likely that in most cases where a study must be based on punched data from sets of cards which are not interchangeable, it would be preferable to process each set of cards separately.

Number of cards

The following countries report that the total number of punch-cards amounts to five million or more: U.S.A. (356 million), U.S.S.R. ("some tens of millions"), Federal Republic of Germany (29 million), United Kingdom (22 million), Canada (14 million), Netherlands (13 million), Japan (9 million) and France (8 million). A further number of countries have less than five but more than two million cards: Argentina, Austria, French West Africa, Sweden, India, Indonesia and Italy. The world total at present is about 500 million cards and the annual increase is of the order of 10 per cent.

Twelve countries indicate that they have punch-cards containing foreign data, as for instance marine observations made available by other countries. In particular as far as marine data are concerned, there is some duplication of cards but not to such an extent that the main statistical findings regarding the amount of punched data are distorted.

Regional distribution of data

About 75 per cent of the total amount of cards are found in Region IV, about 20 per cent in Region VI (including the Soviet part of Region II), 2 per cent in Region II (excluding Soviet Asia) and only about 1 per cent in each of the remaining Regions. The regional distribution is thus extremely uneven.

The annual increase is about 10 per cent in Region IV, about 5 per cent in Region VI, and 15 to 30 per cent in the other Regions. These numbers reflect, of course, differences regarding the time at which the punch-cards were introduced in the various countries belonging to each Region.

As far as marine data are concerned, it may be noted that despite the much larger marine areas in the southern hemisphere, the number of marine observations available on punch-cards is greater for the northern hemisphere; in fact, approximately one-half of all marine data consists of observations from the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean.

Some details of the number of punch-cards held by the different countries may be found in the table opposite.

Types of observations available on punch-cards

Nearly all countries having a punch-card programme are punching synoptic surface land observations; in most cases three, four or eight observations per station per day, but in some cases hourly observations for a considerable number of stations. Nearly 30 per cent of the vast U.S. collection are hourly observations. A number of countries also punch data obtained daily at climatological stations.

In most countries where aerological data are punched, soundings are made twice a day and the entire material thus obtained is entered on cards. The total number of upper-air punch-cards is approximately six million. This may seem to be a small number as compared with the overall number of cards, but it covers in fact a relatively large percentage of the available upper-air observations.

The report of the working group stresses the potential value of having the aerological data on punch-cards:

As modern techniques push our soundings of the atmosphere ever higher, the value of the upper-air card decks increases not only because of the data they contain but also because of the adaptability of the mechanical medium for describing variations in the upper-air elements with height and with time.

Conclusion

The concluding remarks of the report of the working group may usefully be quoted in extenso:

The group believes that the increasing tempo of mechanizing the data files of the various meteorological services warrants bringing some of the details of these activities periodically to the attention of all Members of the WMO. The growing volume of upper-air data on punch-cards should in particular be a source of satisfaction to all who are interested in exploring quantitatively the vertical structure of the atmosphere.

At the same time, a word of caution is in order. Recalling the address by Dr. W.C. Jacobs at the second session of the Commission for Climatology, we should note that existing mechanical processing techniques do not answer all the modern requirements for data processing. In short, we should not evaluate our weather observation programmes solely on the basis of adaptability to any existing mechanical system. If aggressive, imaginative observing programmes result in the collection of more basic information than is available at present, but in forms hitherto untried, such programmes should not be discouraged on the sole basis of their lack of adaptability to existing processing techniques. Rather, it should be hoped that processing techniques will eventually be designed to cope with existing or new observing techniques.

E. H.

Collaboration with other international organizations

ICAO (MID/SEA RAN)

The joint Middle-East/South East Asia Regional Air Navigation Meeting of the International Civil Aviation Organization opened in Rome on 7 January and closed on 3 February 1959. Representatives of 28 Contracting States and of 5 international organizations, including WMO, were present at the meeting, WMO being represented by Mr. N. L. Veranneman. As is customary at such meetings, all meteorological items were examined by a meteorological committee.

The meeting re-stated the basic operational requirements for meteorological services in the MID/SEA Region, paying special attention to the needs of turbine-powered aircraft. A number of recommendations on this subject were adopted, only a few of which can be mentioned in this brief account. With regard to the networks of surface and upper-air observations, the meeting re-examined the basic networks as they had been defined by WMO Regional Associations II and V. It is noteworthy that, recognizing the responsibilities of WMO in respect of synoptic networks resulting from the ICAO/WMO Working Arrangements, the meeting made a much more general and flexible approach to the problem than was usual at Regional Air Navigation meetings. This more general approach was particularly noticeable in relation to the upper-air networks; for the part of the MID/SEA Region falling within the boundaries of WMO Regional Association II, the meeting, noting that this association is expected to hold shortly its second session at which it may wish to revise quite considerably its present basic networks, considered it more appropriate to express the aeronautical requirements in general terms of density, rather than in the form of specific proposals for changes or additions.

Another innovation of the meeting, strongly supported by the WMO representative, was to provide for an implementation programme staged in three successive steps. The purpose of this innovation is to permit Members to concentrate their efforts on a limited number of problems during specified periods of time.

Of importance is the fact that the meeting considered that the development of an adequate radiowind network is considered to be more valuable and more urgent than the development of the radiosonde network. Whereas a minimum of one observation per 24 hours was recommended for radiosonde observations, a minimum of two was considered necessary for radio-wind observations.

As regard pilot-balloon observations, the consensus was that wind observations by means of slow-rising pilot-balloons no longer present much interest for aviation but, on the contrary, that such observations made by fast-rising balloons (300 m/s) have proved to be very useful under favourable climatological conditions. Consequently the meeting recommended that 50 per cent of the stations of the basic network of pilot-balloon observations be operated with fast-rising balloons and that, in addition, such observations be made at 0600 and 1800 GMT at all radiowind stations.

There was a request for more extensive use of ground radar weather stations for providing meteorological observations, since such stations have proved particularly useful in the tropics for the provision of data for short-range forecasts.

As regards networks for the observation of atmospherics, the meeting noted with appreciation the plan recently developed by the RA II working group for the completion of the atmospherics observing network in Region II, as well as the plans regarding the Australian continent; it decided to call attention to the necessity of filling certain gaps.

Finally a special effort was asked for with a view to achieving an increase in the number of weather reports from voluntary observing ships in the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, the Indian Ocean and the China Seas.

In its consideration of in-flight reports from aircraft the meeting took into account the need for aircraft meteorological reports to supplement reports obtained from synoptic stations, especially for altitudes above 4,500 m but, on the other hand, it recognized the need to keep cockpit workload to a minimum and to limit traffic on air/ground communication channels. While representatives of the International Air Transport Association were in favour of the suppression of all in-flight reporting on flights not exceeding four hours' duration (which would exclude quite a number of flights by turbine-powered aircraft), the meeting finally agreed on a solution which adequately safeguards the meteorological interests, namely, that air reports shall be transmitted on all flights with a duration of two hours or more above 4,500 m, provision being made however for the exemption of certain aircraft during periods of heavy loading on air/ground communication channels. Finally the meeting decided to request WMO to set up a scheme of regional collecting centres responsible for the distribution of collective bulletins for synoptic purposes.

Although the synoptic observational networks are still, in many parts of the MID/SEA Region, far below standard, the most serious deficiency with regard to the availability of meteorological data is the lack of adequate meteorological telecommunication channels. Even if all the recommended synoptic stations and programmes were implemented, it is quite obvious that, in the present state of telecommunications, meteorology would still be at a considerable disadvantage in many parts of the Region. There is no doubt that telecommunications constitute the major problem in the southern half of Asia, not only from the viewpoint of service to aviation, but even more so from the viewpoint of service to all users. WMO should attempt to promote progress in this field by positively assisting governments to overcome their present difficulties. Thought might be given to the appointment of a technical assistance expert to study the overall problem in consultation with the various Members. Amongst the more outstanding deficiencies listed by the MID/SEA meeting are: inadequate transmissions of night reports in Afghanistan, Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Philippines, Thailand and Viet-Nam; absence of territorial broadcast centres in Afghanistan and Iran; poor quality of the Habbaniya and Jeddah territorial broadcasts; absence of grouping of territorial broadcasts in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Viet-Nam; Afghanistan, Iran and Iraq; East Pakistan and Burma; absence of a sub-continental broadcast in south-west Asia; absence of a continental broadcast centre in Asia; lack of landline or radioteletype schemes.

The meeting noted with appreciation the plan of Australia to establish a tropical analysis development centre and agreed that it would meet an urgent meteorological requirement; it expressed the hope that it would be possible to establish a similar centre in Asia.

Finally the meeting adopted a recommendation on multilateral meteorological co-operation. Since the presentation of the report of the ICAO Implementation Panel and of the third report of the Jet Operations Requirements Panel, ICAO and WMO have been actively engaged in the consideration and the partial implementation of a joint plan intended to assist in the elimination of the more serious deficiencies in the field of meteorological facilities, services and techniques for jet operations. In the framework of the above joint implementation project, the meeting adopted a recommendation aimed at obtaining co-ordinated action amongst meteorological services to overcome certain basic difficulties such as the lack of adequate numbers of trained staff, the limited availability of upper-air equipment and expendables, the extensively increased workload in meteorological offices as a result of high-level operations and the lack of the required amount of hard currency.

In accordance with WMO/ICAO Working Arrangements all the recommendations of this meeting which fall in the WMO field of responsibility were addressed to WMO.

IFALPA

The 14th annual conference of the International Federation of Air Line Pilots' Associations was held in Helsinki from 10 to 17 March 1959. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and WMO were represented, the latter only on a part-time basis by Mr. N. L. Veranneman.

In view of the considerable attention being given both by ICAO and by WMO to problems related to the operations of jet aircraft, the present conference, unlike its predecessors, did not devote much time to the discussion of meteorological matters. The conference briefly reviewed the conclusions of the meteorological committee of the recent ICAO joint MID/SEA RAN meeting (see p. 148) and found them satisfactory as regards planning but desired to stress the necessity of implementation of the recommended facilities and services. The meeting found no time to enter into the details of the forthcoming simultaneous CAeM-II/ICAO MET V session and decided to have the matter studied by a working party.

With regard to the reporting of icing and turbulence in AIREP reports, the meeting re-examined the code tables developed at its 1958 conference which relate the reported degree of icing or turbulence to the performance of the aircraft encountering it. The conference now agreed that the proposed IFALPA code tables may give a false impression of the intensity of icing and turbulence encountered since the intensity with which these phenomena affect aircraft varies significantly from one type of aircraft to another. Accordingly the conference decided to cancel these proposed code tables, and to re-examine the matter.

UNITED NATIONS

The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSC) met in New York from 23 March to 2 April 1959. WMO was represented by two observers from the U.S. Weather Bureau, Mr. R. J. List and Dr. L. Machta.

In presenting the views of WMO regarding its work with the committee, Mr. List pointed out that the Organization had considerable experience in the measurement of geophysical quantities which could be used in fallout studies and recognized the role which transport and removal of radioactive debris played in such studies, and that WMO was prepared to receive any suggestions for co-operation between the two organizations. It was evident that one of the ways in which WMO might be expected to help was through the mechanism of a symposium on fallout and transport of radioactive debris.

It was mentioned by Dr. Machta that other symposia are already planned on subjects closely allied to fallout, and that the request of the committee might be satisfied by WMO collaboration in one of these. WMO will be apprised later when the plans of the UNSC are more fully formulated.

UN/ECE

The Group of Experts for the Study of Hydro-electric Resources in Europe held its tenth session at Geneva on 17 and 19 March 1959. This group reports to the Committee on Electric Power of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. WMO was represented at the meeting by Mr. E. Hovmoller of the Technical Division of the Secretariat.

Among the items discussed at this meeting, the main point of interest to WMO was the preliminary result of an analysis of partial periodicity in flow conditions in Europe, which is being carried out by the Geophysical Institute of Trieste (see Bulletin, Vol. VII, No. I, p. 39). This study is based on a valuable collection of precipitation data, supplied by a number of European meteorological services following a request from the WMO Secretariat.

The representative of WMO expressed the hope that this material would be used for correlation studies also, as such studies might be expected to lead to valuable results.

It had been decided, previous to the meeting, that the ECE Secretariat should collect and issue stream-flow data, including some precipitation data, for selected river basins in Europe. This decision was confirmed, and it was agreed that the data should be published on a half-yearly basis. The representative of WMO expressed the willingness of the Organization to collaborate, as required, regarding the collection of current precipitation data.

UN/ECLA

The eighth session of the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America, held in Panama City from 14 to 23 May 1959, was attended by delegates from 24 member countries and by observers from II non-member countries and six specialized agencies.

WMO was represented by Dr. R. Schroder, technical assistance expert in Chile, who gave a short expose of the role of the Organization in the work of a regional economic commission. He spoke of the participation of Latin American countries in the meteorological programme of the International Geophysical Year and also of various aspects of the technical assistance programme, in particular WMO's collaboration in the activities of the ECLA Water Resources Survey Group.

Keen interest was shown in the work of this group, which will continue its survey of water resources in Venezuela after the recruitment of some new experts, and may also extend its activities to Cuba and to interested countries in Central America.

International geophysical year

Publication of microcards

IT has already been mentioned on several occasions in the WMO Bulletin (see, for example, Vol. VII, No. I, p. 4) that the IGY synoptic meteorological observations collected at the IGY Meteorological Data Centre are being published on Microcards. The whole of these data will be reproduced on about 18,500 Microcards; at the time of writing (June 1959) over 5,000 Microcards have already been prepared and most of these have been distributed to subscribers.

The complete set of Microcards of IGY meteorological data consists of Parts I, II, III and IV which correspond to the four types of WMO standard forms Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4. The 5,000 Microcards now ready constitute 50 per cent of the complete Part I, 40 per cent of Part III and 12 per cent of Part IV. Further details about these Parts are given below. The material for Part II (Synoptic surface observations — sea stations) cannot be prepared for publication on Microcards until all the forms Nos. 2, 2 (b) and 2 (c) have been received; as the data cannot be entered until the ships' log books are available, there is inevitably some delay in completing these forms.

Layout of microcards

The main underlying principle which determined the arrangement of the Microcards was that it must be easy for the user to locate any given observation. To achieve this objective, forms Nos. 1, 3 and 4 are grouped according to a limited number of basic regional layouts which are strictly maintained throughout the IGY, the only exception being to cover such occurrences as a station ceasing to operate or a new station opening after the layout had already been fixed.

In Part I surface synoptic observations made during one pentade at all selected land stations are reproduced on 24 basic regional layouts.

In Part III radiosonde/rawinsonde observations at 00 GMT and at 12 GMT are grouped on 26 basic regional layouts for each synoptic hour.

In Part IV upper-wind observations made at the four main synoptic hours are reproduced on a total of 46 basic regional layouts: 10 at 00 GMT, 12 at 06 GMT, 13 at 12 GMT and II at 18 GMT.

Full details of these layouts will be given in the final catalogue which will be issued after the Microcard programme has been completed.

Surface observations — land stations

In Part I, where each form contains 20 successive surface synoptic observations from one land station, there is room on each Microcard for 96 forms arranged in 8 rows of 12 forms each. In practice the Microcards only contain between 70 and 90 forms corresponding to the number of stations included in each of the 24 basic regional layouts for form No. I.

The layout of a typical Microcard of Part I is shown in Figure I. The contents of the card are indicated in the heading and the forms are arranged according to the WMO index numbers of the stations. Blank spaces are left wherever there is, a change in the block number and in addition when the grouping of the stations for each Region made this necessary. In the particular case illustrated the stations included in each Microcard of this series (the fourth of the four Micro-cards containing surface data from stations in Region I: Africa) are those with index numbers between 66152 and 68994, which constitute basic regional layout number 10 of Part I. Part I contains no Microcards of this particular layout, one for each of the no pentades of the IGY.

It will be noticed that the first two spaces of the Microcard (top left hand corner) are used for the Microcard reference number; an explanation of this number is given on page 155.

Upper-air observations

The forms for upper-air observations (form No. 3: radiosonde/rawinsonde observations and form No. 4: upper-wind observations) are double the size of form No. I and there is only space on each Microcard for 40 of these forms with five rows of eight forms each.

Originally it had been intended to arrange the upper-air observations synoptically, so that any given Micro-card in Part III would contain the radiosonde/rawinsonde observations from up to 160 stations (each form has space for 4 observations) made at the same synoptic hour on the same day. Under this system the complete data for the whole world for any given observation time would have been reproduced on between 2 to 4 Micro-cards — the number of stations making observations at each of the four synoptic hours (00, 06, 12 and 18 GMT) is not constant.

This synoptic method would in practice have caused a long delay in the publishing programme as it would have meant that no Microcard could be prepared until the data from these 160 stations had been received. The only way of executing the publishing programme with reasonable speed was to reduce the number of stations grouped on each Microcard. This was done for Part III by reproducing data for one synoptic hour on five successive days (a pentade) from a group of 12 to 24 stations. This arrangement in smaller groups of stations has already made possible the publication of radiosonde/rawinsonde data for the whole of the IGY for two such basic regional layouts.

A typical layout of a Microcard in Part III is shown in Figure 2. Each of the five rows contains the observations from the same group of stations (03005-°3953. 04018, 06011 - 07645) at 12 GMT, the top row showing those for the first day of the pentade, the second row those for the second day and so on. To provide the same space in each row, the Microcard reference number is given as part of the heading, instead of in the first row as in Part I.

A word of explanation is needed about the so-called Continuations. Form No. 3 has room for reporting the data at 12 significant levels, which seemed to be adequate at the time when form No. 3 was designed. Subsequently, however, the definition of significant levels was revised at the second session of the Commission for Aerology (see Bulletin, Vol. VI, No. 4, p. 137) and this resulted in an increase in the number of these levels. Where the number exceeds 12, the data are continued on a separate form No. 3, and these forms are reproduced in the end frames of each row.

In the case of Part IV, the principle of the layout is the same as for Part III.

Each form No. 4 has space for 10 upper-wind observations, and it is therefore theoretically possible to reproduce the observations from 80 stations in each row of the Microcard; in practice, the number of stations in each row, that is the number in each basic regional layout, varies from 40 to 70.

Microcard reference numbers

Mention has already been made of the Microcard reference numbers, by which each Microcard is identified. The reference number consists of two groups of three numerals separated by a point, e.g. 107.001.

The first numeral of the first group always denotes the type of form: for example "3" for form No. 3. The second and third numerals of the first group indicate the particular regional layout of the type of form denoted by the first numeral. The first half of the reference number corresponds therefore to the basic regional layout of each type of form and as such remains unchanged throughout the IGY.

The second group of three numerals indicates the dates of the observations reproduced on the Microcard. This is done by means of the IGY pentade calendar. It will be recalled that the 18 months of the IGY have been divided into successive periods of five days (pentades) beginning on 30 June 1957 and ending on 31 December 1958. The resulting no pentades were numbered from 001 to no and it is this number which constitutes the second group of three numerals in the Micro-card reference number. For example: 057 represents pentade number 57 (6 to 10 April 1958).

Some details taken from Parts I, III and IV may serve to illustrate this system of reference numbers. In Part I, for example, Microcards having reference numbers 101., 102. and 103. contain data from stations in Region VI:

101. Stations 01001 - 07480

102. Stations 07510 - 12982

103. Stations 13128 - 17606, 40001 - 40270

In Part III, regular radiosonde and rawinsonde observations at 00 and 12 GMT have been arranged in two nearly parallel series of layouts. Those containing observations made at 00 GMT are numbered 301. to 327., while the corresponding Microcards containing observations made at 12 GMT are numbered 351. to 378. For example radiosonde/rawinsonde data from North America are reproduced in two symmetrical groups of seven basic regional layouts having reference numbers 316. to 322. and 366. to 372. Microcards numbered 316. to 322. contain observations made at 00 GMT while those numbered 366. to 372. contain observations at 12 GMT from the same group of stations.

In Part IV, where upper-wind ascents are published for the four main synoptic hours, the aim was to obtain a certain correspondence between the layouts of upper-wind observations carried out in the same regions but at different synoptic hours and to express this relation in the reference numbers. This was done by giving the second figure of the first group of three numerals a symbolic meaning: the figures o and 1 indicate observations made at 00 GMT, 2 and 3 those made at 12 GMT, 6 and 7 those made at 06 GMT and 8 and 9 those made at 18 GMT. For example Microcards 401., 461., 421. and 481. contain upper-wind observations made at 00, 06, 12 and 18 GMT by approximately the same group oi stations in Region VI: 10384 -17350, 40025 - 40199. As the number of upper-air observations varies considerably for each synoptic hour and within each group of stations, the layouts in Part III and especially in Part IV differ sometimes for the different synoptic hours and in some cases it also happens that the number of basic regional layouts is greater for one or two synoptic hours than for the others.

Detailed lists of basic regional layouts in Parts I, III and IV may be obtained on request from the WMO Secretariat.

Conclusion

In these brief remarks some of the main features which characterize the layouts and reference numbers of the Microcards of IGY meteorological data have been summarized. It can be seen from this that strict adherence to the basic regional layouts in preparing the Microcards will enable users to locate data quickly from any of the participating stations. The individual Mi-crocard reference numbers constitute at the same time a classification system for the whole of the synoptic meteorological data published on Microcards and will serve as guides for filing the cards and for information retrieval.

G. L.

Activities of Regional Associations

Africa

The president of Regional Association I (Africa) has decided to submit to Members, for adoption by postal ballot, five draft resolutions resulting from recommendations presented by the association's Working Group on Radiation after its third meeting. These draft resolutions relate to the calibration of Moll-Gorczinski pyranographs, the comparison of sunshine recorder networks, the centralization of actinometric data for publication and the use of distillation pyra-nometers. Voting ended on 23 June and the results will be indicated in the next issue of the Bulletin.

Asia

AWMO observer attended the meetings of a working party of the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far-East and of the Plan Committee of the International Consultative Committee for Telegraphy and Telephony (International Telecommunication Union), which were held in Tokyo in May 1959 to examine the situation with regard to telecommunications in the countries of South-East Asia, to draw up an overall plan for the development of telecommunications in this region, and to establish a plan for switching the networks with those of the neighbouring regions. For this purpose, the Secretariat carried out a preliminary inquiry amongst the Members of Regional Association II (Asia) in order to establish the current situation regarding meteorological telecommunications and the requirements of each country during the next five years. A complete report on these meetings will appear in the next issue of the Bulletin.

South-west pacific

The Working Group on Telecommunications of Regional Association V (South-West Pacific) has been re-established under the chairmanship of Mr. R. A. E. Holmes (Australia). The Working Group on Radiation has been formed under the chairmanship of Mr. D. Handcock (Australia), thus completing the establishment of all the groups agreed on during the second session of the association.

In accordance with a resolution of the second session of the association, Members have prepared statistics regarding the number of in-flight reports received.

In preparation for meetings in Tokyo in connexion with the telecommunications situation in South-East Asian countries, the Secretariat has carried out an inquiry amongst Members of RA V similar to that mentioned above with regard to RA II.

Europe

The president of Regional Association VI (Europe) had a ballot carried out within the association in order to determine the manner of using certain meteorological codes in the Region which were adopted after the second session of the Commission for Synoptic Meteorology and will come into force on 1 January 1960. The codes in question are those for SPESH reports, the transmission of maximum wind and of tropopause data and the possible use of an area indicator in the code form HIARF (High-altitude area forecast).

After a preliminary meeting of the ad hoc group responsible for studying exchanges of meteorological data between Regional Associations VI and IV, the RA VI Working Group on Meteorological Transmissions held its fourth meeting in Paris, from 25 May to 6 June 1959- An account of these meetings will be published in the next issue of the Bulletin.

Meteorological stations in Angola

A good example of how a small network of meteorological stations can be set up and operated by private enterprise in close co-operation with the State service is provided by the work of the Companhia de Diamantes de Angola, which has the exploitation rights for diamonds in the Lunda district, covering an area of 46,700 sq. km in the north-east of Angola (Portuguese West Africa).

The network consists at present of a main observatory at Dundo, 4 supplementary stations and 14 precipitation stations. Plans are ready to open up an additional supplementary station and two more precipitation stations.

Surface observations for climatological purposes are taken at all stations. In addition, surface and upper-wind (pilot-balloon) observations are taken at Dundo, the results of which are transmitted by the Company's radio station to Luanda, the site of the provincial division of the national meteorological service, to be included in the territorial collective of Angola.

The observatory at Dundo, which is equipped with a set of instruments for measuring solar radiation, was included in the list of selected stations for the International Geophysical Year 1957-58.

Technical assistance programme

Discussions at congress

The Third Congress of WMO, in April this year, reviewed WMO's participation in the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance (EPTA). The valuable assistance which is being given under the Expanded Programme to many countries was very much appreciated and it was unanimously agreed that WMO should continue to participate in the Expanded Programme during the third financial period.

Congress noted with some concern that the present share of WMO in the Expanded Programme is not sufficient to provide technical assistance to all countries in need of it. It was felt that these difficulties could only be alleviated by securing a certain minimum planning share for WMO and it was decided to appeal to the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of the United Nations to make provision for a share of at least $500,000 annually for WMO. The Congress resolution on this subject together with an explanatory memorandum has, in the meantime, been submitted to the Secretary-General of the United Nations and it is hoped that ECOSOC will give it early consideration.

The Congress also took certain decisions on the future status and on the financing of the Technical Assistance Unit which is attached to the WMO Secretariat.

1959 programme

In the last issue of the Bulletin a comprehensive account of the current WMO activities in technical assistance was given. In the subsequent paragraphs therefore only a few new developments will be mentioned.

British East Africa

As soon as the first five months' meteorological maps for the selected test year have been completed, Mr. C. I. H. Aspliden will undertake a comparison of this material with all locust information which is available for the corresponding period in the Anti-Locust Research Centre (ALRC) in London.

Dr. H. Sebastian, chief of the WMO Technical Assistance Unit, paid a short visit in May 1959 to the ALRC in London in order to make arrangements for Mr. Aspliden's work and to discuss the future collaboration between the ALRC and the WMO mission. It was envisaged that the results of this mission should be published in two parts. The first part would deal purely with the meteorological findings and would be the sole responsibility of WMO; the second part which deals with the correlations between meteorological and locust information would be a joint effort between the ALRC and WMO.

Iceland

Mr. G. A. Clift (U.K.) paid a second visit to Iceland from April to May this year to advise the government on the establishment of a meteorological instruments workshop.

Steps are now being taken to recruit another expert for a two months' mission to Iceland to advise on the evaluation of climatological observations and their application for purposes connected with the economy of the country.

Pakistan

In discussions with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) it was agreed that a meteorological project in Pakistan hitherto operated by UNESCO should now be transferred to WMO. Consequently arrangements are now being made for the recruitment of an expert to advise the Government of Pakistan on the establishment of meteorological laboratories and on training and research in meteorological instruments.

Poland

The United Nations agreed to award two fellowships, each of nine months' duration, to Mr. F. Wirkus to study forecasting and to Mr. E. Strauch to study physics of clouds.

Sudan

Additional funds have been approved for a two months' expert mission to the Sudan to advise on the installation and operation of radiation equipment.

Uruguay

Mr. R. M. Arlery (France) has returned to his home country upon completion of his mission as adviser on the application of meteorology to agriculture. It is hoped that the valuable work which Mr. Arlery has performed during his nine months' stay in Uruguay will stimulate the future development of agrometeorology in that country.

Yugoslavia

It has been possible to extend the fellowship of Miss S. Otorepec who is at the moment studying agrometeorology in the U.S.S.R. This extension will enable her to study for an additional month in the Federal Republic of Germany.

Travel to the near and middle east

On 1 June 1959 Mr. P. R. Drouilhet, deputy chief of the WMO Technical Assistance Unit, left Geneva to visit Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan for the purpose of visiting WMO missions and of assisting governmental authorities in the formulation of their 1960 technical assistance requests.

Funds for the 1960 programme

As already mentioned in the last issue of the Bulletin, the planning share for the 1960 programme, owing to a general decrease in the contributions pledged by governments, was fixed at a considerably lower level than the approved programme for 1959. During the 44th session of the Technical Assistance Board (TAB) in New York in March 1959, Dr. H. Sebastian, who represented WMO at this meeting, repeatedly drew the attention of the Board to the particular hardship resulting from such a reduction to agencies like WMO with a relatively small share in the EPTA. As a result of these representations the Board recognized this particular difficulty and approved an extra allocation of $32,000 for WMO. This brings the planning level of the 1960 WMO programme to $349,000 which approximately corresponds to the present 1959 programme.

The Third Congress of WMO recognized with appreciation the consideration which the TAB has given to this question. Whereas the extra allocation of $32,000 for WMO just offsets the overall reduction in the 1960 programme it is now hoped that the general limitation of funds available to WMO in the Expanded Programme may be alleviated through the appeal to ECOSOC which is mentioned above.

Special fund

During an informal meeting with the deputy managing director of the Special Fund in March 1959 some further information was obtained on the possibilities of rendering technical assistance under this new Fund. These questions were also discussed during the Third Congress of WMO. In view of the fact that the Special Fund has to concentrate on relatively large projects and not spread its resources over a large number of small projects it seems rather unlikely that many meteorological projects could be implemented at this time. It is however expected that WMO will be called upon to collaborate with other agencies in large-scale projects in which meteorology is involved, for instance the establishment of training centres, agricultural projects, river development etc.

In the meantime the managing director of the Special Fund referred for comments to the Secretary-General of WMO some meteorological projects and other projects in which meteorology is involved and it is hoped that some of these projects will be considered by the Governing Council of the Special Fund at its forthcoming meeting later this year.

Technical assistance in public administration (opex scheme)

As already briefly mentioned in the January 1959 issue of the Bulletin (Vol. VIII, No. I, p. 28) the United Nations introduced a new type of technical assistance by which experts may be provided to fill temporarily posts of an operational or executive character; this new type of assistance is also known under the name OPEX Scheme. It is open for assistance in various fields of activities.

The United Nations has now approved the first OPEX post in the field of meteorology. It is a post for an electronics officer in the Sudan Meteorological Service to install and maintain upper-air and radar equipment. Upon request from the United Nations WMO is now taking steps to provide suitable candidates for this post.

Activities of the technical commissions

Aeronautical meteorology

THE next simultaneous CAeM-II/ ICAO MET V meeting will begin on 1 September 1959, as announced in a previous number of the Bulletin. This meeting will be held in Montreal, at the headquarters of the International Civil Aviation Organization. Appropriately, the general theme of the meeting will be the introduction of turbine-engined aircraft on regular commercial routes, its main task being the drawing up of meteorological procedures necessitated by the introduction of this type of aircraft. In view of this, Annex 3 to the ICAO Convention, the ICAO PANS/MET and Chapter 12 of the WMO Technical Regulations — Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation — will be revised.

The questions necessitating a revision of procedures include: the provision of observations and forecasts of temperature, pressure and possibly humidity, prior to take-off; the supply of detailed forecasts of wind-speed and temperature for the climb, cruising and descent phases of flights; the supply of short-term forecasts to enable the pilots of turbine-engined aircraft to decide in time whether they should begin the descent to the terminal aerodrome or divert to another aerodrome and thus avoid the effect on operational costs of prolonged flight at a low altitude. Other questions which will be discussed will include the implications of the use of turbine-engined aircraft on synoptic networks, aeronautical climatology, the operation of meteorological services and the need for specialized personnel. It may be useful to point out, in connexion with this meeting, that other WMO commissions and panels of experts are dealing actively with various technical aspects of the meteorological problem created by the use of this new type of aircraft.

Agricultural meteorology

Most of the eleven working groups of the Commission for Agricultural Meteorology are now in operation, and steps have been taken to complete the necessary formalities regarding the establishment of the remaining groups.

The Working Group on Meteorological Services for Aircraft employed in Agriculture and Forestry has prepared a circular letter for distribution by the Secretariat requesting Members to forward information on their activity within this particular field.

Similar action has been taken by the Working Group on Forecasts for Forest Fire Services, which has drafted a questionnaire regarding the incidence of forest fire hazards and the issuing of forecasts for protection against these hazards in Member countries.

Hydrological meteorology

As a first step in establishing the new Commission for Hydrological Meteorology (see p. 132), Members have been requested to inform the Secretary-General of the names of their experts designated to serve as members of the commission. As soon as 30 Members have nominated experts in this way to participate in the work of the commission, it will be possible to proceed with the election of the president of the commission.

Instruments and methods of observation

The plans for carrying out comparisons of working-standard pyrheliometers at Davos (see Bulletin, Vol. VIII, No. I, p. 38) have met with such an enthusiastic response that it has proved necessary to organize the comparisons in two groups. The first group will meet from 3 to 22 August and the second from 31 August to 19 September 1959.

Preparations are in hand for the session of the Working Group on Radiation Measurement which will be held in Oxford on 27 and 28 July 1959, immediately following the symposium on atmospheric ozone and radiation (see Bulletin, Vol. VIII, No. 2, p. 109). The agenda for the session, which follows closely the terms of reference of the working group, includes the study of equipment for the measurement of all the components of the radiation balance and the revision of the chapter on radiation measurements in the WMO Guide to International Meteorological Instrument and Observing Practice.

Maritime meteorology

The Working Group on Relations with International Fisheries Organizations has been formed under the chairmanship of Dr. K. Terada (Japan). The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization will participate in the work of this group.

Synoptic meteorology

The Working Group on Networks, under the chairmanship of Mr. P. D. Thomson (United States), is in the course of drawing up a programme of work by correspondence, indicating the preliminary questions to be studied in order to permit the establishment of quantitative criteria governing the spatial distribution of instrumental observations at a given moment.

As an outcome of the meeting mentioned in the preceding number of the Bulletin (Vol. VIII, No. 2, p. 87), the Working Group on Pressure Reduction Methods is at present selecting the methods to be used in preparing the charts for use in making comparisons, and choosing the regions to be covered by the charts.

The Secretariat is at present preparing the part of Volume B of Publication No. 9 - Weather reports concerning the new codes coming into force on 1 January 1960. Consideration is being given, on this occasion, to the adoption of a numbering system for the international code tables, which would ensure that numbers allocated to any new code tables would fit into a logical order.

With regard to publications relevant to the work of the commission, the English version of the Provisional Guide to Synoptic Meteorological Practices is now available (see p. 168) and the French version will be published shortly.

Obituary

DR. IVAN RAY TANNEHILL

We announce with regret the death of Dr. Ivan Ray Tannehill on 2 May 1959 following a brief illness. For over 20 years Dr. Tannehill, in his quiet and unassuming way, devoted much time and effort to the furtherance of international meteorology through the IMO and WMO. He served as president (1946-1947) of the IMO Commission on Projections for Meteorological Charts; vice-president (1946-1947) and president (1947-1951) of the Commission for Synoptic Weather Information; and vice-president of the Commission for Synoptic Meteorology (1953). He was also a member of the Commission for Maritime Meteorology.

Although he was intensely interested in all phases of international meteorology and in the activities of the IMO and WMO, his primary concern was to promote international understanding and co-operation in the practical application of meteorology to human endeavour and in the free exchange of scientific information.

No doubt many members have pleasant recollections of their association with Dr. Tannehill at the Salzburg, Berlin, Montevideo, Toronto and Washington IMO and WMO meetings. His ability to find reasonable compromises acceptable to the majority, his friendliness, and his realistic views on matters under discussion were always helpful in finding practical solutions to difficult problems.

Dr. Tannehill's primary interests were hurricanes, drought, and solar-weather relations. He was a prolific writer of articles and books on meteorology. The best known of his published works are Hurricanes, their nature and history, Weather around the world and Drought, its causes and effects. He also recently wrote two books entitled All about the weather and The hurricane hunters (reviewed in the Bulletin, Vol. V, No. I, p. 40) which were very popular amongst young people.

Dr. Tannehill graduated from Deni son University, Granville, Ohio in 1912. In 1951 this University awarded him a citation for his distinguished activities in the field of meteorology. The Institute of Aeronautical Sciences presented him in 1952 with the Robert M. Losey award in recognition of his "outstanding contributions to the science of meteorology as applied to aeronautics". In 1955, Denison University again honoured him by conferring on him an honorary degree of Doctor of Science.

His career in the U.S. Weather Bureau extended over 40 years during which time he held important long-term assignments as chief of the Marine Division; chief of the Synoptic Reports and Forecasts Division; and finally as assistant chief of the Bureau, until his retirement in 1954.

DR. SERGE FROLOW

WE received with regret the news of the sudden death of Dr. Serge Frolow on 12 May 1959, at his home in France.

Dr. Frolow was a member of the Commission for Synoptic Meteorology and of its working group on isotherm analysis and isotherm, stream-line and isotach prognostic techniques in the tropics, until January 1959 when he resigned from both for reasons of ill health. His many friends on the commission will share pleasant recollections of association with him at its second session (New Delhi, 1958) and will recall his many contributions to the progress of that session. The commission will miss his valuable services. He was also a member of the Regional Association I Working Group on the Arid Zone.

Dr. Frolow joined the French Overseas Meteorological Service in 1932 and served for some years in French West Africa and then in Martinique. He became director of the Meteorological Service of the Antilles-Guiana group in 1943 and later deputy director of the Meteorological Service of Madagascar. He was the author of a number of important papers on tropical meteorology. Dr. Frolow was held in high esteem by his colleagues not only as an expert in tropical meteorology, but as a man of great intellectual and moral integrity.

News and notes

Membership WMO

Guinea

ON 27 March 1959, the Government of the Republic of Guinea deposited an instrument of accession to the World Meteorological Convention with the Department of State in Washington, in accordance with the provisions of Article 3 (b) of the Convention. Guinea thus became a Member of WMO on 26 April 1959.

Ruanda Urundi

ON 28 April 1959, the official request for the admission of the Territory of Ruanda Urundi, presented by the Belgian Government in accordance with Article 3 (e) of the Convention, obtained the approval of two-thirds of the Member States of the Organization. It was therefore possible to announce the admission of this new Member before the closure of the Third World Meteorological Congress.

WMO now has 102 Members, 78 States and 24 Territories.

Voluntary weather observers in U.S.A.

Before the U.S. Weather Bureau was established in 1891 the weather service in the United States had been operated by the Signal Corps of the U.S. Army, which had drawn voluntary weather observers from all walks of life. The Weather Bureau followed the same plan and today there are over 7,000 such voluntary observers making daily reports of the local weather from all parts of the country.

On 26 February 1959 the Weather Bureau issued a special edition of its regular Daily Weather Map in honour of the 17 men and 4 women observers who had completed 50 or more years of voluntary service, among them three who have taken daily weather observations for more than 60 years.

Television in pre-flight briefing, at Dublin Airport

When Aer Lingus, the Irish airline company, recently decided to remove its flight operations office from the main terminal building at Dublin Airport to a site remote from the meteorological office, the personal attendance of crews for pre-flight meteorological briefing threatened to become a problem. On the one hand it was considered that much valuable time would be wasted by the crews journeying to and from the meteorological office; on the other hand it was felt that the personal briefing, always regarded as an integral part of the flight meteorological service, should not be dispensed with. The solution proposed was remote briefing by closed circuit television, supplemented by facsimile equipment for the transmission of flight documents.

Following some initial testing, such a system was set up on a trial basis prior to removal of the Aer Lingus operations office from the terminal building. With a little practice forecasters and crews grew accustomed to the new technique of briefing and, when removal finally took place, the system was already well established and accepted by all concerned.

The remote briefing equipment consists essentially of a television camera and control unit in the forecast room transmitting by coaxial cable to a 12-inch screen in the operations office, together with a two-way speed circuit between the two offices. The camera is focused to cover a specified area of an analysed synoptic weather chart when placed in a fixed wooden frame. A very satisfactory definition is obtained on the screen from the ordinary working synoptic charts. The details of plotted reports are not normally legible but this is not considered a serious drawback. A 12-inch monitor screen is provided in the forecast room so that the quality and clarity of the transmission can be checked and adjusted as necessary. The equipment is operated by the staff of the meteorological office. A second camera and control unit are available as a stand-by. The speech circuit is separate from that of the television. It consists of two independent audio units controlled respectively in the forecast room and in the operations office.

Some difficulty was originally experienced in the TV transmission due to variations in lighting. In order to eliminate these variations as far as possible the area around the chart was screened by an opaque curtain, and uniform illumination was obtained by the use of a 150 W spotlight suspended near the camera.

The briefing procedure is simple. Flight forecast documents are transmitted by facsimile to the operations room and are in the hands of the flight crew as they follow the forecaster's discourse on the screen. As the TV transmission is in black and white, fronts have to be specified as warm, cold, etc. but otherwise briefing is similar to the normal personal briefing.

It is believed that this is the first occasion on which TV has been put into regular and routine use in preflight meteorological briefing. Aer Lingus and the Irish Meteorological Service deserve to be congratulated on their initiative and the undoubted success of the venture.

News from the WMO secretariat

Symposium on tropical meteorology

Preparations for the symposium on problems of tropical meteorology in Africa are proceeding. As announced in the previous issue of the Bulletin (p. no), the symposium will be held in Nairobi, Kenya, from 30 November to 17 December 1959 under the joint auspices of the Munitalp Foundation and the World Meteorological Organization.

The first week of the symposium will be devoted mainly to formal lectures by consultants. Professor H. Flohn (Federal Republic of Germany) will lecture on climatology, Dr. A. G. Forsdyke (United Kingdom) and Professor N. E. LaSeur (United States of America) on synoptic meteorology, and Professor L. J. Tison (Belgium) on hydrometeorology. During the second week it is planned that attention will be turned to the practical application of meteorology in such fields as agriculture, aviation and the development of water resources, with lectures by participants who are specialists in these subjects. Finally an attempt will be made to define the outstanding problems of tropical meteorology as revealed by the earlier lectures and discussions, and to recommend methods of solving these problems.

Publication of aerological data

In accordance with a recommendation of the Commission for Aerology which was endorsed by the Executive Committee, the Secretariat has made a series of inquiries since 1955 to determine how many meteorological services are publishing their aerological data (radiosonde, rawinsonde and pilot-balloon observations) and to gather information about the form in which they are published. The results of the latest inquiry were reported to Third Congress. A statistical summary of the available information is given in the table below.

Anybody wishing to receive more details about national publications of aerological data is invited to write to the Secretary-General.

Provisional guide to synoptic meteorological practices

The provisional text of the Guide to synoptic meteorological practices has now been distributed to Members. A more complete text will be prepared by an ad hoc working group of the Commission for Synoptic Meteorology and will be presented for adoption by the commission at its third session.

As is stated in the preface to the provisional Guide, its purpose is to present in a convenient form the decisions of WMO on essential synoptic meteorological practices and procedures supplementary to those included in Volume I of the WMO Technical Regulations. It is intended that the Guide should be used as a basis for the preparation of national manuals and detailed instructions, needed by the meteorological services and other agencies concerned with synoptic meteorology, to meet their own particular requirements. It is also hoped that the Guide may be of assistance in developing synoptic meteorological practices and procedures by countries which are in the stage of establishing their national forecast services with the ultimate aim of obtaining the desired degree of standardization of these practices and procedures throughout the world.